The election has been seen as a referendum on Mr Modi, whose economic reforms have had mixed results but whose popularity as a social underdog has endured.

He began the campaign under pressure after losing three state elections amid rising anger over farm prices and unemployment.

However, campaigning shifted to national security after a suicide car bomb killed 40 Indian police in the contested Kashmir region in February.

Critics have said his Hindu-first platform risks increasing social tensions in the country of 1.3 billion people.